Which classifications receive rational basis review in equal protection analysis?

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Rational basis review is the deferential standard used for classifications that aren’t treated as suspect or quasi-suspect. The only option that captures a precise nuance about when alienage is reviewed under rational basis is that alienage classifications are reviewed rationally only when tied to the federal government’s authority over immigration or to actions involving self-government and the democratic process. In those federal-immigration contexts, a law will be upheld if it is rationally related to a legitimate government interest.

Race and gender, by contrast, are governed by stricter levels of scrutiny (race under strict scrutiny; gender under intermediate scrutiny). Religious beliefs often trigger strict scrutiny when the government burdens religious exercise. While age, disability, wealth, and economic classifications are typically analyzed under rational basis in many contexts, the question’s framing points to the specific, limited circumstance where alienage classifications receive rational-basis review.